Abstract

The advent of multimedia computers has led to some innovative approaches to teaching music theory via the Web, and recent advances in desktop video technologies have made it possible to teach elements of practical performance skills online.  Together these technologies may have the potential to drive a transformation in the way music education is delivered.  However, the effectiveness of such transformation is dependent upon the ability and willingness of music teachers to make a conceptual leap in their approach to the teaching of music.  Online course developers and consultants need to keep this in mind and work collaboratively with music teachers and students to determine their specific needs in terms of Web-based music teaching and learning resources.  This paper reports on how such an approach led to the implementation of Web-supported learning for several groups of music students, in Southern Cross University’s (SCU) Bachelor of Contemporary Music Program and the local community.

Introduction

Web-based technologies may have the potential to transform the way music education is delivered to local and distance students.  However, the effectiveness of such a transformation is dependent upon the ability and willingness of music teachers to make a conceptual leap in their approach to the teaching and learning of music. For some this will mean letting go of the idea that the only effective way to teach someone to play a musical instrument is in person on a one-on-one basis.  Online course developers and consultants, especially those who are not insiders to the discipline, need to familiarise themselves with such beliefs and traditional approaches before attempting to introduce Web-based technology into the music teaching environment.  In fact, this is essential in order to work collaboratively rather than coercively.  This paper reports on how a collaborative approach such as this led to the implementation of Web-supported teaching and learning for students enrolled in Southern Cross University’s (SCU) Bachelor of Contemporary Music Program.   Other participants in this project were music teachers and students of several community music schools and studios in the local community.  The term ‘Web-supported’ is used in this paper to describe the use of the Web as a medium to provide additional learning support for on-campus and off-campus students, as distinct from fully online courses whereby all teaching and assessment is done in the online environment.

Traditional music teaching

As a first step to exploring the use of desktop video technologies for instrumental (practical) music teaching, it is relevant to note the characteristics of traditional instrumental music teaching.  Most music schools and private music studio teachers still advocate one-on-one tuition as a matter of course (Persson 1996; Hays 1998). Usually, students have one half-hour lesson per week. These lessons are usually supplemented by paper-based print, with some photos and audio or VHS videotapes.  Lesson format may vary according to the instrument and style of music being taught.  However, it is typical for any instrument lesson to include a mixture of technical work (e.g. scales, arpeggios and other rudimentary technique building exercises).  The performance is made up of one or two set pieces of music, which the student is in the process of learning, either for a forthcoming exam or for pleasure, and the occasional impromptu demonstration by the teacher as required.  The teacher will usually demonstrate a new piece for the student when first introducing it and periodically thereafter as part of the remedial or corrective feedback process.  The latter is an essential part of the teacher’s role and not something which can be readily reduced to a troubleshooting-style list of solutions applicable to all students.   Some of the basic technical work however, is the kind of component which teachers can pre-record on video for the student to replay as required between lessons.  This strategy has the potential to reduce time spent repeating basic techniques during face-to-face lessons, even if done using VHS video-tapes for playback on a VCR.  Streaming video via the Internet offers further advantages, not least of which is the capacity to provide students with access to such resources anywhere, anytime they have access to the Internet via a Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) device.  Nowadays, with the advent of wireless mobile digital videophones, PDA’s and the like, the device need not necessarily be a desktop or laptop computer (techtv.com 2003).

Independent learners

Individual practice is the primary means by which music students learn instrumental performance skills (Hoffer, 1991; Scott, 1994; Brodsky, 1995).  Geake (1987) and St George (1990) note that although it is part of a teacher's responsibility to guide the student in how to practice, ultimately students must apply themselves.  St George (1990) argues that teachers should help their students to understand that learning is a 'teach thyself' situation, because students who are able to teach themselves will make the best use of the information.  It stands to reason, therefore, that Web-based learning resources must be designed accordingly to foster self-directed learning. 

Emphasis on appropriate web-based instruction

Authors of Web-based learning literature have periodically called for the development of appropriate pedagogy for the Web-based learning environment (e.g. Ellis & Phelps, 2000; Newton & Ledgerwood, 2001; Smissen & Sims, 2002; Torrisi-Steele, 2002; Burnett & Ellis, 2002).  Accordingly, Kearney and Treagust (2001) advocate “constructivist software” for “engaging learners collaboratively in open ended, exploratory learning environments” (Kearney & Treagust, 2001, p.1).  In support of such constructivist ideals, the principle author began research into how Web-based technologies could be used to facilitate student-centred teaching and learning of music.  Finding ways to optimise the use of desktop video technologies in particular (i.e. desktop videoconferencing (DTVC) and digital video player software) soon became the primary focus of this research: a) because the technology provides a means for demonstrating instrumental music performance techniques via the Web; and, b) because the virtual controls of Web-based digital video players enhances the student’s ability to explore, interact and engage with the learning resource.   The latter fits well with Kearney & Treagust’s (2001) notion of exploratory and open-ended computer-mediated learning.

Using digital video to enhance music teaching via the web

DV can be edited, duplicated, played, replayed, paused or moved back and forward immediately, incrementally, fast or slow, without loss of image quality.  Furthermore, the viewer does not have to wait for a mechanical action to take place between these functions, as would be the case with a VHS video player.  In addition to those benefits, digital video lends itself to using the World Wide Web (Web) as a vehicle for asynchronous delivery or synchronous in respect to desktop videoconferencing (DTVC).

DV files can function as stand-alone audio-visual teaching and learning resources (Karlsen, 2002) or they can be integrated with other supporting multimedia such as computer generated graphics, music notation, audio files and animations.  One method of drawing on the combined power of these different media is to integrate them into a Powerpoint™ slide presentation for delivery via the Web, another is to use a course management system such as WebCT™ or BlackBoard™.  The latter makes it possible to utilise a range of features including synchronous and asynchronous discussion forums and virtual classroom which can further enhance the student’s ability to explore, interact and engage with the Web-based learning resources, the online teacher or facilitator and fellow students.

Implementing Desktop Video Technology (DTV) in web-based music instruction

A study was conducted to examine how DTV could be used in conjunction with the Web to enhance instrumental music teaching.  A total of twenty three teachers and seventy one students were involved in one or more aspects of the study.  Figure 1. shows the range of activities and the number of participants and hours involved in particular activities.

Activities (spread over 3 years)	Number Teachers involved	Number Students involved	Total Hours per activity	Period
Researcher’s preliminary orientation and experimentation with different network connections and settings, application extension settings & range of related DTVC devices & software	1	6	80	Jan-June 2001
Pilot study: teaching and learning musical instruments via DTVC (Ethernet cable connection)	4	12	30	Mar-June 2001
Series of trials: teaching and learning musical instruments via DTVC (Ethernet & Wireless)	6	22	56	July-01 to Dec 02
Pre and post DTVC trial interviews	6	22	16	July-01 to Dec. 02
Shooting video of participating music teachers and students demonstrating various Instrumental Performance Skills (IPS)	7	16	55	July-01 to July 03
Editing video of music teachers and students demonstrating IPS	11	16	94	July 01-July 03
Compressing & uploading QuickTime ™ movies of teachers and students to server for streaming via the Web	7	12	41	July 02- July 03
Preparing & sending small QuickTime ™ movies via email	14	8	12	July 02- July 03
Phone interviews and correspondence by email with teachers and students about the usefulness of previously emailed, streamed and downloadable QuickTime ™ movies	14	22	8	July 02- July 03
Production of Video Compact Discs (VCD’s) of QuickTime ™ movies of teachers and students demonstrating IPS for them to evaluate their technique and to compare quality & convenience of having these VCD’s versus accessing the movies via Web	11	16	46	July 02 July 03
Development of an Online Unit integrating links to movie files (on QuickTime™ video streaming server) for undergraduate music students (drummers) using BlackBoard™ Course Info as the learning management system.  Students accessed streaming video files of their lecturer demonstrating drum rudiments.	1 teacher + consult with 3 of I.T. staff & 1 online	21	40	Nov 02- July 03
Researcher as online unit developer, facilitator of online discussion forum and occasional provider of technical support to students and teachers involved in evaluation and feedback. In order to satisfy the requirements of their associated practical studies unit, students were required to critique and comment on the instructional integrity and usefulness of each Video via Online Unit discussion forums.	Researcher & 1 teacher facilitating online unit. Another 5 involved in evaluation & feedback	21	30	Feb 2003 to July 2003
Pre-arranged and impromptu meetings and discussion with participants regarding the refinement of research process, teaching methods and resources for Web-based teaching and learning.  Formal and informal presentations to students and members of music faculty to inform them about the research and development of the online unit.	23	21	24	July 2001 to July 2003

Figure 1. Activities over three year study, teacher and student groups listed in chronological order of the commencement date of the activity

Venues included the School of Contemporary Music, Southern Cross University, Lismore, Australia, and local music teaching studios.  Most of the activities listed in Figure 1 are scheduled to continue into the second semester of 2003.  The hours spent on each activity is relevant to note because it was evident during the present study that some problems are more likely to arise the longer one is involved in the activity.  Videoconference connections for instance, may be reliable for 15 minutes or so but during this study would sometimes fail during longer teaching periods, leading to some frustration on the part of the teacher and student.  Furthermore, it is relevant to note the time spent on various activities as an indication of the total investment of time.  This has implications for assessing the economic as well as practical feasibility of using DTV to enhance Web-based music instruction. 

In accord with the cyclic: ‘plan; act; monitor; reflect; plan; act; monitor; reflect’ processes of Action Research (Dick, 2001), the study involved constant, comparative analysis of interview data, observation notes, and relevant themes from music education; multimedia and information technology literature.  Also in keeping with the action research approach, participants were encouraged to take an active role in decision making about the development and refinement of techniques for using DTV technologies and the research procedures being used to test the effectiveness of these techniques.

Initial focus of the study

The study began with a narrow focus, exploring the feasibility of teaching musical instruments via the Web using desktop videoconferencing technology (DTVC).  As reported in Anderson and Ellis (2001), even this initial experimentation phase revealed that the performance level of DTVC via the Internet was subject to a number of technical constraints.  For instance, the speed and capacity of the network, power of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of the client computer and so on were found to impact on the fluidity of the video.  A range of DTVC software was tried (i.e. CuSeeMe ™, Videolink ™, and iSpQ VideoChat ™) on G3 and G4 Macintosh computers.  In each case the frame rate proved too slow for the purpose of synchronous music teaching - whether connected to the Internet via 56K modem or Ethernet through Southern Cross University’s broad band network.

In contrast, subsequent experimentation revealed that it was possible to teach some instrumental performance techniques satisfactorily via DTVC between two computers connected by a single designated line (i.e. Ethernet cross-over cable).  Based on the assumption that this level of performance or better would be possible and more widely accessible via the Internet in the next decade or so, it was considered timely to begin investigating the practical and pedagogical challenges and developing appropriate strategies for teaching this way.  To begin, the first author taught six of his own music students via DTVC.  The results of those and subsequent trial music lessons via DTVC were reported in Anderson and Ellis (2001b; 2002).

In subsequent trials involving more teachers and students, each group of two or three videoconference-mediated lessons constituted an action learning cycle within the broader series of cycles.  As the study progressed, the results of the first group of lessons informed the second; the second informed the third and so on.  For example, initially, teachers were asked to teach as they usually do and not concern themselves with any special lesson preparation relevant to the videoconference medium.  In successive lessons however, teachers and students tried procedures that were generated during previous lessons - or following video analysis of those lessons.

Expansion of the study

Central to the rationale for the action research methodology adopted was the desire to avoid premature commitment to a particular research question or to confirming or refuting a particular hypothesis at the expense of exploring tangents that may prove significant (Neuman, 1997).  The most obvious example of this responsiveness was the expansion of the study to explore the application of pre-captured video files for asynchronous delivery.  That excursion into producing and evaluating pre-captured video files led to a lot of experimenting with different camera angles rather than simply copying and accepting the usefulness of techniques traditionally used in VHS music instruction videos.  Numerous camera angles for instance, were tried to find optimum angles to show particular techniques.  The usual procedure was to take direction from the instrumental teacher being recorded, and shoot video from the front, back, side, oblique, overhead, and from underneath if necessary.   The following picture of a movie shot from above and slightly behind the guitar neck is one example of a view rarely seen in guitar method texts.

Figure 2. Overhead view of guitar neck and strings from a player eye view of the movement used in a vibrato technique

The teacher pictured in Figure 2 commented that this view used in conjunction with the more common front on view provides the student with a useful and unique view of the wrist, fingers and forearm action, which assists in string bending to produce a vibrato effect.  Other music teachers and students confirmed this after playing the movie to evaluate it.  In fact, a common theme emerged that irrespective of the instrument concerned it was useful to show as close as possible to a player’s eye view in addition to the more common angles shown in traditional music instruction diagrams, pictures and videos.

Figure 3.  Player’s eye view of wrist, finger and forearm position in violin technique

Involving the teachers and students in the evaluation of these videos (which they and their colleagues and/or peers were involved in creating) helped to refine procedures for creating a better product the next time.

Streaming video files accessed via principle author’s Web site

The principle author’s Web site was embedded with links to a streaming server at Southern Cross University.  QuickTime™ videos of research participants demonstrating techniques on a variety of instruments, were uploaded to the streaming server.  Students were asked to access the site from off-campus and on-campus locations to see if these videos could help to facilitate their inter-lesson practice.   The study took the position that teachers and students should be able to judge the influence of these learning resources by comparing progress made with that usually made during their conventional lessons.  In this stage of the research the perceptions of participants were obtained through interviews and dialogue recorded after and while lessons were in progress.  The next stage of the research involving the development of an online unit in a course management system provided an even wider range of ways for teachers and students to interact.

Web-supported music teaching and learning using BlackBoard
Course Info 5.0™

SCU uses BlackBoard Course Info 5.0™ course management system. Using this system, the researcher developed an online unit for the drums and percussion teacher of SCU’s School of Contemporary Music.  The purpose of this developmental unit (course) was to supplement the teacher’s face-to-face teaching and to further investigate the feasibility of offering aspects of such a practical subject to external students in the near future.  The unit, entitled “Practical Music Studies” (PMS) was designed to rely on digital video files for two reasons: (1) because the research conducted up to that point had shown that digital video files could help students by giving them a point of reference for inter-lesson practice; (2) to further validate findings and strategies emerging from previous research cycles.

Video files were integrated into the unit in different ways.  Small file size videos (up to 100K) were uploaded directly and inserted to appear within the pages of the site.  Longer playing videos of larger file size were uploaded to a streaming server and hyperlinks to these files were embedded under the heading “External Links”.  Most of the videos were of the teacher demonstrating various drum rudiment techniques although some videos of other research participants (teachers and students) were also included from time-to-time.  Scanned music notation and other supporting material was uploaded, refined and/or deleted during the course of the semester, often directly in response to feedback from students. 

Through a combination of online forums, open discussion in subsequent face to face tutorials and one survey to date, students have given feedback on the usefulness of individual video files and supporting material, instructional design issues, technical performance matters such as download time, and the whole idea of moving aspects of practical music teaching and learning online.  Interestingly, written contributions to the online discussion forums were less prolific than anticipated by the teacher and researcher, however, the quality was high, showing clear evidence of reflective thinking and interaction between participants.  Further surveying of the student perceptions is planned for the second semester of 2003 and is expected to shed more light on why some students were reluctant to get involved in these online forums in spite of having accessed the site frequently.

Many of the research procedures outlined in Figure 1 were implemented simultaneously.  This was done to save time and for the convenience of participants who were on tight schedules in respect to their performing and teaching commitments.  Furthermore, it was necessary to investigate the potential of combining both modes of delivery, e.g. primarily asynchronous delivery supported by synchronous DTVC and visa versa as required.  Some of the findings and strategies that have emerged to date are as follows:

Pedagogical

1. Converting movies to slow motion proved useful for showing fast human and mechanical movements which can not be detected when viewed live

2. Teachers and students reported that the ability to pause, forward and rewind video files with minimal image distortion helped them to analyse their technique and make adjustments where necessary to improve evenness, endurance and sound production

3. Most teachers considered split screen effects useful for showing: a) two performers playing a duet; b) the coordination between the different limbs of one player, and/or; c) the same technique simultaneously from different angles

4. DV files are best kept small for computer users constrained by low speed modem connections to the Internet and little hard disk space for storage.  However, long movies which result in large DV files are sometimes necessary to show the full sequence or cycle of motion involved in a particular manual technique.   A double stroke roll on a snare drum, for instance, must be demonstrated from very slow to fast and back to slow again in order to show the critical transition between wrist and rebound technique.  Streaming video helps: see finding number 9

5. Teachers acknowledged that DTVC via the Web could be useful for building rapport, asking for impromptu demonstrations and gaining immediate feedback on performance or the execution of a particular technique

6. Non-verbal communication cues and gestures such as smiling and waving appear to be as important in teaching music by DTVC as they are in a more conventional music teaching studio or classroom environment.  As reported in Anderson and Ellis (2001b), visual communication cues such as a smile from the teacher can help to reassure students as they struggle to play a challenging piece of music over DTVC.  This has implications for the positioning of cameras to allow occasional headshots during DTVC or the pre-recording of instructional videos for streaming via the Web

7. The students who accessed their teacher’s instructional video files via the Web agreed that these videos gave them a useful point of reference for their inter-lesson practice,

8. The main advantage acknowledged by students and teachers in relation to Web-based instructional video files over CD-ROM’s or DVD’s was that the teacher could readily update or refine these videos and supporting material in response to student feedback, on the fly during the semester

Technical/practical

9. Video streaming technology makes it possible for users to access large video files without saving them to their hard drive thus alleviating the constraints mentioned in finding number 4.

10. Although modern DV cameras can auto focus and compensate for different lighting conditions, adhering to basic guidelines of photography (such as to avoid having the subject in a shadow) helps to produce clear images showing sufficient detail to enhance learning.

11. Techniques such as: a) using a tripod to keep the video camera stable, and b) eliminating unnecessary background movement (e.g. a busy patterned curtain blowing in the wind) can help to minimise unnecessary data processing for computers.  This can assist in maintaining optimum video resolution and fluidity during a DTVC.

12. A fixed black background helps to highlight the movement of white drum sticks or mallets.  Besides improving contrast between the subject and background, this helps to minimise unnecessary data processing for computers during DTVC and so helps to maintain video fluidity and resolution.

13. A small DV camera inserted into the body of several acoustic instruments proved useful for inspecting their condition and inner workings.  This can help students to learn how instruments are constructed and how the parts contribute to sound production.

14. Different instruments call for different positioning and re-positioning of computer hardware and cameras to show various instrumental performance techniques from various angles. 

15. Some teachers found it distracting to stop and adjust equipment while teaching by DTVC.  Mounting cameras on boom stands with swivel joints, which allow for quick and convenient repositioning with one hand, helped to remedy this problem.

16. Students reported that accessing streaming video files from off-campus was faster than they expected in spite of using 56k modems (usually around 1 minute to buffer a 40-60 second QuickTime™  Video file); when accessed on campus the videos were playable almost immediately due to the higher speed broad band network.

Appropriateness of action research for implementing Web-based music teaching

The appropriateness of an action research approach for a study of this nature (i.e. involving the diffusion of new technology into an old discipline) became increasingly obvious the further it progressed.  This was particularly evident with respect to gaining sustained commitment from a nucleus of participants who contributed their time and resources on a voluntary basis with no prospect of payment.  Giving these people active and influential roles in the research helped them to develop a sense of ownership and sustained interest in the research and learning outcomes.  As one key participant acknowledged, “it cuts both ways”.   In other words, there has been something to gain for individual participants as the research activities presented opportunities for teachers and students to develop practical computing skills and knowledge - which they frequently acknowledged could help to position them at the fore of new developments in their field.  In addition, their involvement challenged them to engage in a cyclic process of critical reflection, analysis and refinement of their playing technique and teaching and communication skills.  This supports Cashion and Palmieri’s (2002, p.157) notion of “online education which can encourage reflective thinking, interactivity and deep learning where students interpret information and apply their knowledge.”  After participating in this research periodically over three years, the drums and percussion teacher at SCU became so convinced of these benefits that he has applied for funding to have video recording and computer equipment permanently installed in his teaching studio.  In addition, he has asked the principal author to assist in continuing to develop and refine the online unit, the first of its kind in SCU’s School of Contemporary Music.  This teacher’s involvement and enthusiasm has led to greater expressions of interest by other faculty, some of whom expressed initial doubts about the benefits of the Web for teaching practical music skills.

Conclusion

Research into online learning indicates that the reconceptualisation of existing pedagogical approaches is a necessary step in order to optimise the use of new Web-based educational technologies.  The present study supports that research in the context of music teaching.  In addition, it supports prior research into human resource development (Carlopio, Andrewartha and Armstrong, 2001) which suggests the best way to foster such transformation is through stakeholder involvement in the change process.   What has emerged so far from this study is a number of useful, practical and pedagogical strategies for Web-based music teaching and confirmation of action research as an approach that can enhance the development and implementation of such strategies.

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